Community Development Theory

Community Development Theory is the most practical framework for social workers seeking lasting change for individuals and the communities and societies in which they live. It focuses on the centrality of oppressed people in the process of overcoming externally imposed social problems (Allison Tan, 2009). This theory is community development work because by the meer fact of the definition it speaks for itself. The theory could adapt to other disciplines like Neighborhood Development.

Empowerment Theory

Empowerment Theory refers to the experience of personal growth and an improvement in self-definition that occurs as a result of the development of capabilities and proficiencies (Staples 1990). Another definition suggests that empowerment is a combination of personal strengths, initiative, and natural helping systems to bring about change (Perkins & Zimmerman, 1995). This theory can be applied to community development by empowering the people within the community to develop their own community. The theory can adapt to other disciplines like Sociology.

Ecological Systems Theory

Ecological Systems Theory is a form of general systems theory in which ther is concren with the relations among "living entities" and "between entities and other aspects of their enviroment." This theory can be applied to community development by or through the enviroment because the developer has to check out the environment and it's surroundings first in order to build sucessfully. The theory can adapt th other disicplines like Ecological psychology an general systems theory.

Positivism

• Definition: "the basis of sociology's claim to a scientific paradigm which measures human behavior, often in a decontextualized way and with little concern for the more intangible intuitive, emotional or feeling aspects of being human". This theory has basis in dichotomous thought as well as bourgeouis philosophy which looks to empirical science to be the true source of knowledge. See xiv of Ledwith's "Community Development: A Critical Approach". People are looked at in a scientific, objective manner.

• Apply: A community development situation exemplifying this theory would be where the organizer(s) is looking at the community not as individuals, but as objects needing to be dealed with as a part of the problem solving. There is no thought to how the community members may be feeling about the issue at hand and how they may be affected by the potential changes. If the issue is at the interpersonal level, the practitioner simply looks at the person, decides what they need to solve their problem and does not discuss with them how they might or might not want that change.

• Adapt: In an effort to do "Positivism", there is not so much positive emotions carried in the work with the community. It is objective; scientific. This can be adapted to be more intuitive to community concerns and desires by looking at scientific research/surveys and considering how change based on that information may effect the people. Further research can be done by the organizer(s) to learn how the community feels about the issues at hand.

Communication Theory

Communication Theory examines any person that behaves in response to information about himself and his environment. when peolpe exchange information , they influence each other (Communication Theory and Social Work Practice by Judith C. Nelson). This theory can be applied to comunnity develpoment by the fact that the develper has to communicate with the peolpe wwithin the community to gain an understanding of what the people need or want to be developed. This theory adapts not only to social work and communicaton but it exists not only as a single entity but as a series of interrelated areas of study.

Naive Consciousness

• Definition: In the words of Ledwith (Community Development, A Critical Approach) found on page xiv, "Freire's concept for partial empowerment which relates to the symptoms of oppression, engaging with single issues rather than the underlying roots of injustice".
• Apply: Naive consciousness can be seen in a community situation where the people are dealing with an issue such as poverty, and in the process overlooking the root of the problem and not resolving the issue where it starts. i.e. A person is homeless, and the social worker works to take care of that aspect of their lives while ignoring the issue of that person not having stable income or competitive job skills needed in order to more permanently be out of that homeless situation.
• Adapt: Also in the situation of working with a homeless person; instead of focusing on just the housing issue, the social worker can collaborate with the consumer, co-workers and other resources in addressing the other issues affecting his/her homelessness. In this way, naive consciousness will no longer only address a single, outstanding problem. Rather, social justice can be more effectively served by looking at the overall issue and its foundation.

Building Powerful Community Organizations

Organizing: Pathway to Change - Organizing as a Strategy, A Theory (Based on Observation): The Imbalance of Power. Defined - An organizing strategy assumes that problems exist in the world because of an imblance of power. (Building Powerful Community Organizations by Michael Jacoby Brown) This theory can by saying that some people have the power to control the lives of others including control over others' work lives, communities, neighborhoods, schools, and their environment. This power includes control what it costs to most people for the necessities of life: health care, transportation, decent housing, education, heat, electricity, and food. This theory can be adapted by the sear fact most people in the world have to fight for all the bear necessities of life. Not including those that have to beg, borrow, and even steal for these necessities that should be provided by either having a well paying job, given due to disabilities, or just provided to those that are taking care of others like parents, chilren's children, and so on.

Dichotomous Thought

• Definition: "refers to a binary, either/or way of seeing the world that defines one thing in relation to its opposite, with a subject/object power implicit in the relationship, for example, working-class/middle-class, male/female, White/Black." See xii of Margaret Ledwith's "Community Development: A Critical Approach".

• Apply: This theory can be applied in community development situations where the community is primarily Black and the organizer is White. They will have opposite ways of viewing the issues they face because of their cultural backgrounds. This can also be seen where the organizer is from a middle/upper-class environment and the community is largely working/lower-class. There will be opposite ideals and desires based on where these individuals are coming from geographically and economically.

• Adapt: Working with a community that is dealing with dichotomous thought, there will need to be found a base of common values and understanding between the community organizer and community. This first step will need to be made in order to effectively work with all involved in the social/economic/political issues at hand.

Power-based Community Organizing (S. Nguyen)

DEFINE: This theory describes a type of community organizing that is based on the cooperative action of big groups of people, who are interested in solving problems through public action on a political level. The power-based model uses strategies such as public meetings, protests, and marches to put pressure on existing government structures to concede to the demands of the people.

APPLY: Power-based community organizing might be used in situations where community members identify problems at the structural level.

ADAPT: I recently watched a documentary called 'The Water Front' which tells the story of how community organizing was used to fight against local officials to make water more affordable for residents in the Highland Park community. After years of experiencing water shut offs, increases in the cost of water, and struggling to get access to water, local residents created a grassroots movement to fight for what they believed to be a basic human right. These residents and community organizers used strategies in protesting, marches, and public hearings to put pressure on government officials to create change within the community. (waterfrontmovie.com)

Smock, Kristina. (2004). Democracy in action: Community organizing and urban change. New York: Columbia University Press.

Sociological Imagination (S. Nguyen)

DEFINE: This is a term that was coined by C. Wright Mills in explaining an individuals recognition of the relationship between large-scale social forces and individual action and biographies. This concept is based on the idea that individuals are able to think about their lives in the context of history and social outcomes. It a tool which enables individuals to see how social factors on different levels of society interact with one another and helps in understanding life outside of personal experience.

APPLY: Social workers and community organizers engage in the sociological imagination quite often, as this is a concept that is associated with cultural competency and social diversity. In understanding different populations and cultures which we are not familiar with, social workers need to be able to look at social issues from many different perspectives and also able to link historical meanings with those on the individual level.

ADAPT: In working with certain populations like war veterans, it would be helpful for a social worker to use the sociological imagination in examining the impact of war, policies of the US government, and other social issues and factors that contributed a client's or population's state of being.

Mills, C. W., (1959). The Sociological Imagination. Oxford Press, London.

Civic Model of Community Organizing (S. Nguyen)

DEFINE: The model/theory of community organizing focuses on connecting community members directly with governments on a local level. This type of organizing relies on existing local service systems to solve problems and solutions tend to be narrow in scope. Social networks in this model tend to be small and relationships are generally based on self-interest and neighborly relations.

APPLY: In community organizing, this model is best used in situations where problems exist within a small community where goals identified are to be accomplished through the use of official, bureaucratic channels and citizen interactions. For example in addressing neighborhood crime, a civic model would first create a forum where neighbors could meet and exchange information about the problem. They would then connect with existing channels of government to create a plan of action.

ADAPT: An example of civic community organizing are neighborhood crime watch groups and neighborhood associations.

Smock, Kristina. (2004). Democracy in action: Community organizing and urban change. New York: Columbia University Press.

Time banking

Definition: Time banks aim to connect members, different organizations, and sectors for needed services, thus weaving relations and creating community (Stephanie Rearick of Dane County TimeBank in Madison, WI). The concept is that everyone's time is worth the same amount, you exchanged services based upon hours spent on the task

Application: In community development work, a Time banks are a mechanism to create an economy where time is the currency. Time banks generally exist within geographic communities, with the purpose of bringing people together and strengthen social relationships.

Adaptation: Time banking is really interesting concept and could be applied in other field. I think it would be a useful technique on a smaller scale (interorganizational) or even as a system that operates on something other than time. In working with the TimeBank this semester, there seems to be a few parts of how it works that could be tweaked to make it work better.

Institutional Racism

Definition: Jones (2009) defines Institutional racism as the structures, policies, practices, and norms resulting in differential access to the goods, services, and opportunities of society and race”.

Application: In community development work, a community organizer needs to assess for any sign of institutional racism, when working with a community, and then work to break that barrier. For example, in Detroit there was no source of fresh vegetables within walking distance for some residents, this is an example of differential access to goods and services that is establish by Institutional racism.

Adaption: This theory could be applied in school setting by the teachers to make sure that students’ academic performance is not affected by institutional racism. If that is the case, teachers need to take necessary measures to reverse it.

Civic entrepreneurs

Definition: Entrepreneurs is a person who creates and grows an enterprise (Markley et al.). According to Phillips and Pittman (2009) a civic entrepreneur is the one who create programs and resources that benefit our communities and our lives. They develop children’s museums, provide public health care, and build new playgrounds and parks.

Application: In community development work, A civic entrepreneurs could really make a difference in a community that is marginalized by creating programs to meet the marginalized communities need.

Adapt: The theory of civic entrepreneurship could be used by business developer to take opportunities of business potential in marginalized countries or communities. For example, business school in Stanford university reaching out to very distance villagers whose production were getting wasted due to lack of resources, and the business school students trained the villagers on how to store and ultimately to export their production and the business people ultimately makes money as well as the villagers.

Deviance Theory

• Deviance Theory
• Define: Deviance is an act of behaving in a way that is different from the norm and varies from an established rule. Deviance theory is specific to both culture and context and covers rage of behaviors from crime to manners.
• Apply: As social workers dedicated to social justice, we recognize that populations deemed deviant deserve to be looked at compassionately and advocated for, insuring a just social system to navigate. “Deviance” is a relative term and phenomena. Therefore, it is imperative for all social workers to understand the cultural norms of the communities with which we work.
• Adapt: This theory can be adapted to Sociology field study to figure out societal problems. Through this theory, it is able to analyses about who causes problems in society and why they diverge from societal norm as deviance.

Marxism

• Marxism
• Define: Marxism, whose central values are liberty, equality and fraternity, insists that welfare and well-being are social norms based on the values of solidarity and cooperation. This theory proposes a welfare society where the well-being of people is a primary consideration and the mode of production is set up to meet human needs rather than to make profits.
• Apply: Along with social policies, community also should support and take care of each individual in a community. All people in the community should have equal social resource services not only for human basic needs but also their well-being life.
• Adapt: This theory can be adapted to Politics field. This theory would be helpful to promote participation in the government for social changes in order to encourage social justice and social equality.

Game Theory

• Game Theory
• Define: Game is any situation in which one player will only act to maximize his benefit by predicting the behavior of one or more other players. This theory assumes players are rational. The players can analyze possible outcomes, identify paths to the outcomes and choose the actions that result in the best outcome.
• Apply: This theory is useful to understand conflicts that occur between different communities or within a community. This theory can lead the best rational results which can maximize benefits for all different communities or all community members in a community.
• Adapt: This theory is adaptable to economics or business field. People are able think about how to maximize their profits by using this theory.

Theory One Tom Richmond II

Progressivism Theory http://people.morehead-st.edu/fs/w.willis/fourtheories.html

Progressivism is an educational theory based on child-centered teachings, with less focus on the roles of learning top-down rather than more wholesomely. It is given that only democracy permits true learning, and that cooperation and collaboration of ideas will truly grow the mind. This theory can provide great benefits in looking at the community for input as much as inputting personally. By focusing on advising the community rather than leading outright, better cooperation will be enacted, yielding better results. This theory can be applied to politics in the sense of putting the voice into the voters and constituents. It is here where collaboration and the connections of ideas can flourish, in a true democracy. As learning should be directly related to the interests of the learner, so can the policies and laws be directly related to interests of the populous.

Environmental Justice

Define

This field/movement aims to reduce environmental exploitation (and thus negatively affecting plant and animal life, land degradation, water quality, etc) by large corporations and the government. The crux behind the movement (other than environmental ethics and concerns) is that disadvantaged populations (globally, too) are forced to bear the effects at significantly higher rates. These communities end up with more severe health outcomes from toxicant exposure, lack of clean water, etc.

Environmental justice activists work from and within these affected communities often to raise awareness of the issue, garner support, and work to create policies and action to reduce environmental injustices.

Apply

Environmental justice movements have stemmed from community organization. As a movement, environmental justice did not get attention (and actually did not occur) without affected groups of individuals rallying together to make it know the environmental injustices occurring. It is the vulnerable groups, when given the tools and support and movement from within, who can launch an issue into public domain and fight for their goal.

Individuals interested in community development and community organization who may be looking for jobs might find it ideal to look at the field of environmental justice. Frankly, there are so many environmental injustices out there in our country (and world), and people and communities are severely affected by them.

Adapt

Environmental justice is a part of social justice.

"Cultural diversity thus becomes essential for biological diversity; and histories based on local economic development offer alternatives for the future that reflect values other than consumer lifestyles;a harmonious co-existance between social justice and environmental justice" (Ledwith 149)

Sustainable development now and in the future is going to NEED to employ issues of environmental (in)justice in its planning and execution, or society will continually be blocked from ethical just progress.

Bordieu Theory

Define:

Bordieu's theory emerged from French sociologist, anthropologist, and philosophe. Bordieu's theory offers a way to examine the cultural, social, and symbolic capital. When we look at the symbolic meaning understanding the deeper underlying meaning of the dynamics of power relationships as a part of societies socialization process. It provides an understanding of how there are cycles of privilege and oppression. Bordieu argue that individually each of us is impacted by our social location (s) which influence the judgement of taste. In other words, the places we associate ourselves with have signifigance on what we opt for.

Key terms to consider: Social capital- resources that one can acquire through their network of mutual relationships with others in order to secure benefits. Cultural capital-non financial social assets that are inherited and/or granted through academic credentials and qualifications. Symbolic violence- the source of power one uses against those who are less powerful. Habitus- socially constructed systems of dispositions that orient thoughts, perceptions, expression, and actions (i.e influence of relationships and/or experiences.

Bordieu's (1986) early definition, for example, focused on individuals:

Social capital is an attribute of an individual in a social context. One can acquire social capital through purposeful actions and can transform the capital into conventional economic gains. The ability to do so, however, depends on the nature of the social obligations, connections, and networks available to you. (R. Philips, R. Pittman 2009)

Adapt:

Be aware of the capital that community members and clients hold in order to understand the appropriate approach to promote social justice. Understand people's perspectives and possible barriers to change. Cost and benefits with having or not having social, cultural, and symbolic capital. We are all exposed to capitalism which leads to repercussions on individuals, groups, and larger systems.

Apply:

To apply Bordeu's theory in communities we need to examine the implication capitalism has the positionalities, internalized structures, and the bi-directional relationship (both cause & effect). As well as having the ability to be conscious of our inherent biases that guide our work. As social workers and community organizers we are stressed the importance of knowing exactly who you are so that you can better help those who need help. By undertaking Bordieu's theory it can shed light to what has shaped you into the person you are today.

Queer Theory

Define:

Queer theory is characterized by whatever is at odds with the dominant or norm society identifies itself as. There is nothing the queer theory particularly pertains to. It can be seen as an identity without an spirit. Near the 20th century, the word queer was first used to mean 'homosexual.' Depending on the context the term can be offensive, positive, or it is rarely used.

Adapt:

Queer theory emerged out of queer liberation movement and critical Feminist and LGBT. One of the theorists, Michael Foucault focused on the History of Sexuality which led to his discovery of the key elements the postmodernist era influenced the development of queer theory. Over the years the (LGBTQ) Lesbian Gay Bisexual Transgender Queer population has adopted the term 'queer' and made it their own. Instead of using the term gay or homosexual they often use queer. Today, we are seeing the use of the word queer used more widely as the world has started to become a little more accepting of LGBT community itself.

Apply:

When looking at queer theory it is essential to look at the range of critical theories including feminist theory and critical race theory that scrutinize social and cultural spheres. When working in a community that may have LGBT population present. It is important to understand and recognize the terms which have impacted the community at large. Not all individuals who identify as LGBT are okay with the term queer. It depends on the context that the term is used in and the values the particular community upholds with respect.

CAS (Complex Adaptive Systems)

Define:

Complex Adaptive Systems (also known as Complexity Theory)- this theory is about the systemic process that change posesses. CAS consists of a collection of individual agents with freedom to act in ways that are not totally predictable. The actions are interconnected so that one agent’s actions changes the context for other agents. In other words, once change occurs it affects the systems within the intimate relationship they share. CAS is highly disciplinary, seeks answers structural questions about living, adapting, and the process of changing systems. CAS is highly influenced by revolutionary and evolution that the world has been exposed to.

Apply:

An example of CAS are communities themselves. Taking a deep look at communities we see why they exist, how they adapt, and change when they are influenced by other factors. However, this theory could be adapted in any context where people are working towards social justice. As well as we can see how CAS is embedded in the entirety of political parties. Moreover, CAS can be of assistance in a community setting to help us steer away from generalizing the situation that is taking place. As well as better understand what theories are of value in a given situation at that specific time. It always us to look at the bigger picture that "change is here to stay." If we can recognize the inevitable role that change plays then it will help us understand the necessary steps taken to achieve change within the world.

Adapt:

Complex Adaptive theory emphasizes the importance of understanding that change is constant and inevitable. You can't stop it and you can't start it, you can't prevent it, adaptation is continuous. Through a CAS theory lens, the question is not how to create or plan change, but how to adapt to and navigate change. Control of a CAS tends to be highly dispersed and decentralized. Complex systems are embedded with other systems and co-evolve. CAS theory acknowledges that multiple sources of change are occurring simultaneously. A system’s history is irreversible and the future is often unpredictable. A small input can have an unanticipated large effect. CAS theory can be viewed as a meta-theory which provides a way of organizing and relating a range of other theories. In this way, complexity theory reconciles potentially conflicting models by demonstrating how each theory is of value in certain contexts at certain times and for certain people.

Transformative Learning Theory

Define:

Transformative theory: a learning process of becoming critically aware of one's own tacit assumptions and expectations and those of others and assessing their relevance for making an interpretation. Three phases: critical reflection, reflective discourse, and action. Transformative learning often involves deep, powerful emotions or beliefs, and is evidenced in action.

Adapt:

Transformative theory can be applied when working in communities where there is segregation and members do not unite due to difference in ideologies. It can be applied in helping members acknowledge their biases and then working with the community in order to create unity by finding common beliefs and relevance. Transformative theory helps empower communities in that members are in a constant process of gathering information and making meaning of that information relative to the self. It helps community members learn about their likes and dislikes, in turn, motivated to create change.

Apply:

Transformative theory is frequently used in the education system. It is useful when working with undecided/exploratory students. Advisors use this theory to help students gain clarity in their future plans and provides definition to their decision-making. By gathering information and exploring into their inner feelings students can rule out career and educational paths. Transformative theory helps students gain a “meaning of me.” In applying this theory the advisor and student engage in critical dialogue that leads the student to critically reflect on his/her experiences and that of others. The goal is for the student to act upon his learning experience to shape his/her goals and aspirations.

Collaborative Learning Approach

Define:

Collaborative Learning approach: a situation in which two or more people learn or attempt to learn something together. More specifically, collaborative learning is based on the model that knowledge can be created within a population where members actively interact by sharing experiences and take on asymmetry roles. Learners engage in a common task where each member is accountable to each other.

Apply:

Collaborative learning approach is commonly seen in educational settings. Involving joint intellectual effort by students or students and teachers. Groups of students work together to understand and make sense by sharing information and knowledge. Collaborative learning comes into play in every classroom where discussion is allowed. During class when we are split into groups or in pairs we are practicing collaborative learning.

Adapt:

Collaborative learning can be used in a community that lacks information and awareness. It can be used to help those entering the community as well as other members learn and understand needs through other community members.

Matrix management approach

Define: Matrix management approach is an approach of managing through a series of dual-reporting relationships instead of a more traditional linear approach. Individual community members report to different organizations in order to complete a particular project or task. Matrix approach is adopted from a business perspective however; it is widely used in many product/project management situations. Any time members are grouped into teams it is likely that there is a matrix structure. Theoretically, leaders and members have roughly equal authority within the group.

Adapt: Matrix structures are more likely to exist on a temporary basis. Benefits of Matrix management facilitate rapid response to change and are more responsive because it permits efficient exchanges of information. It creates a community in which members are eager to exchange information and cooperate more closely.

Apply: I am a member of the Latino Social Work Coalition here at the University of Michigan. Our coalition works under a Matrix management approach. This has worked in that it does not allow for the leader to hold all the power. Instead the power is distributed throughout the different sub-groups including financing, detainment, and education. It helps projects move forward faster since groups are in charge of certain task and report to the entire group on their projects. It decreases the amount of time that the group must meet to discuss projects and updates. Instead of a traditional approach where everyone just reports to the leader members are to report to the entire group.

Monocultural Change

Define:

Monocultural Change

Communities are in a constant state of change. However, community change looks different in comparison from a multicultural, monucultural and pluralist approach. These three are types of practice; they are not theories. Barry Checkoway describes Monocultural change as based on a “concept of a community whose people are similar in their social characteristics and committed to a common purpose.” A monucultural change the community gains strength in unity, members agree on the same issue and they have similar history, and traditions. In monucultural change approach, the power is held by members of the dominant group and may exclude minorities from the circles of power. Nonetheless, there will be a few from the minority group that will gain acceptance into the power holding dominant groups. Yet, it is important to know that those minorities in the dominant groups will be a few in numbers and will express the same ideologies from that of the dominant groups.

Apply:

It is very easy to see the dynamic of a monocultural change in meetings. For example, a meeting of professors will be most likely to start at the time in which everyone has agreed to, members of the meeting will have similar goals and beliefs, a monucultural language and rules will be used. If there are minorities within this meeting minorities will adhere to the same language, rules, and ideas. Another example will be in classrooms. Students are all expected to follow the same rules that have been placed by the dominant group, use the same language and learn the same values and curricula content. Change will be accepted by the majority and participation will be equal amongst all members.

Adapt:

Although, monocultural change may appear to be unfair and exclusive it has advantages. Monocultural change is beneficial to those that wish to take action for a common purpose. For example, people who have experienced the same oppressions and barriers can unite for the same purpose and create change. However, there is risk to this approach including creating a system where there is a belief that only one way is the best way and having no tolerance or acceptance to individuals who are not members of the dominant groups.

Business Retention and Expansion

DEFINE: Business Retention and Expansion (BRE) works within a community to create relationships with existing businesses. This effort is done in hopes that they will remain in the area and expand to offer more services and job opportunities. BRE efforts work to "increase the likelihood that [businesses] will remain and expand there instead of relocating or expanding elsewhere" (Phillips and Pittman, 2009, p.212). BRE programs must be tailored to each community so that they can properly address the specific economic and societal needs of the community members. APPLY: Community developers conduct interviews and surveys with businesses, begin initiatives to improve communication and relationships among businesses and the government, and hold forums or meetings for businesses to attend and discuss issues. All of these tasks are vital to BRE efforts and community organizers can use them to strengthen the business world of the community there are working with. BREs are a cost-effective way to boost the local economy and create more jobs---both important tasks in any community development initiative. ADAPT: BRE must be an effort by multiple stakeholders, not just community organizers. Therefore, this concept would be beneficial for local governments to take advantage of. If politicians are looking to boost their town's/city's economy and employment rates, they cannot just focus on seeking out new businesses. Government officials must be concerned with how existing businesses are functioning and where there is room/need for expansion. (Source: Phillips, R. and Pittman, R. (eds.) (2009). An Introduction to Community Development. New York: Routledge.)

False consciousness

Define: This situation occurs when the world remains unquestioned by individuals. This causes dominant groups to remain privileged and unchallenged, while subordinate groups are led to (or forced to, 'unintentionally') accept their situation. As described by Ledwith, it is the "way in which subordinate groups are persuaded to accept inequalities by being passive and pessimistic" (97). Often this stems from years of a subordinate/dominant relationship. Perhaps the subordinate group has tried to stand up for themselves in the past and been repeatedly squashed.

Apply: You cannot do any community development work unless you have the movement of the community. If community members are unable/unwilling to see a 'problem'- is it a problem? If they are unwilling/unable to accept that there is an inequality, then you haven't really gotten a basis for a community organization movement. And individuals are at different levels of conscientisation. You need to take this into account- not everyone is going to be on board right away. There needs to be empowerment among the subordinate group so they don't feel their efforts are for naught. And sometimes the group in power has honestly no idea what they're doing is causing inequality and if you don't approach the issue correctly (i.e. if you ambus the group in power) you could cause negative backfire.

Adapt: Social justice education can be fantastic for young adults- for example college students. Some universities offer programs- however in the grand scheme of things only a small subset of students is fortunate to go through such education and training. That aside, in social justice education you have to be very careful about where people are on the scale of consciousness of who they are and their privileges, etc. In fact the education and training programs are geared around that self-discovery. And once people are able to identify where they are, they may be more fully able to understand the inequalities imposed on other groups. In addition, they may be able to identify that a problem/inequality isn't a lost cause. If you can rally enough support you CAN make a stand and challenge a dominant group.

Problematizing

Define: Problematizing is a Freirean concept that approaches problem solving through the form of dialogue and a teacher-learner philosophy (Ledwith, 2005). In the words of Ledwith (2005), “It is a mutual process founded on reciprocity and humility that gets beyond the power imbalance of the traditional teacher-student relationship” (pg. 99)

Apply: In this process, everyone is a teacher and a learner. This theory/concept is a key element in creating community participation and a sense of equality. Prolematizing is an approach that is used in the TimeBank initiative. Core TimBanking values are founded on the principles of reciprocity and community participation. This initiative recognizes that all individual have valuable strengths and skills that need to be shared and received with one another. It allows for children to teach their elders, and for people of power to learn from others with minimal education. Problematizing allows for individuals to be seen as human and valuable.

Adapt: This theory/concept could be adapted in large business office buildings. Large office buildings are often used to house many different separate organizations. Instead of remaining completely isolated from one another, these businesses could use the theory/concept of problematizing to achieve a sense of community and share services. Many organizations within large office building remain separate from one another because of the possibility of disagreement in philosophy. By adapting the concept of problematizing, a general sense of respect is possible. Through this respect, different businesses can learn from one another and also teach one another, sharing services, knowledge, and creating community.

Source: Ledwith, M. (2005). Community Development (pp. 56-111). Portland: Policy Press.

Paulo Freire's Critical Pedagogy

Define: “Critical Pedagogy involves questioning, naming, reflecting, analyzing and collectively acting in the world” (Ledwith, 2005, pg. 95). It is also defined as a, “democratic process of education that takes place in community groups and forms the basis of transformation.” [Ledwith, 2005, pg. 95] Paulo Freire’s theory is based on the belief that liberation is possible.

Apply: This theory has helped to shape the philosophy behind community development work that we practice today. As a community developer/organizer, you are a critical educator. It is essential to encourage others to engage in critical thought through asking challenging questions and pushing people to their learning curves. Through this process, the community worker is encouraging the individual to ask his/her own questions and enter into that critical sense of thought that will hopefully give hope and lead them into a sense of liberation.

Adapt: Freire’s theory can be and should be adapted in all areas of life. If this theory was adapted in a business structure, employees would be empowered and learn from one another, as opposed to following a specific leader. These employees would be given a voice if this theory were to be adapted in this setting. For example, a business owner of an accounting firm could encourage his/her employees to critically think about his/her work and ask themselves questions that would encourage critical thought. This sense of encouragement allows for critical thought to take place, and through this process an employee could realize that the business was engaging in unethical practices. The employee could bring up this realization to the employer, and through dialogue and mutual respect, issues would be addressed and change can be effectively achieved within the business.

Source: Ledwith, M. (2005). Community Development (pp. 56-111). Portland: Policy Press.

Conscientisation

Define: As defined by Ledwith (2005), “Conscientisation is the process whereby people become aware of the political, socioeconomic and cultural contradictions that interact in a hegemonic way to diminish their lives” (pg. 97). Conscientisation is the process of becoming a critical thinker and unpacking dominant thought and oppressive thought which results from the cycle of socialization (Ledwith, 2005).

Apply: Conscientisation happens when a critical awareness is formed. The application of this sense of awareness leads to collective action. This concept can individually fostered through community groups, specifically dialogue and direct action experience. When individuals have experiences/dialogue conversations that engage them in critical thought, conscientisation is taking place. This theory can also be implemented through personal discipline in engaging in material/experiences that will encourage critical thought and the dismantling of previously held dominant and oppressive worldviews.

Adapt: This theory/concept could be adapted within a high-school class curriculum. A high school teacher can engage his/her students in this process by participating in social justice education training sessions, and then facilitate dialogues within the classroom. These dialogues can be focused on oppression and social justice issues that have a large effect on the community/students. These dialogues will encourage students to engage in the process of conscientisation by thinking critically about their lives and the ways in which they have been socialized.

Source: Ledwith, M. (2005). Community Development (pp. 56-111). Portland: Policy Press.

PCS Model

Define: The PCS model (Thompson 2001) has three concentric rings (inside to outside: P-C-S). The "P" stands for personal prejudice or the personal, psychological level; the "C" stands for the cultural level- consensus, commonality, conformity; the "S" level stands for the structural level. (Ledwith 128)

Apply: This model is useful for community development because it allows us to see how different levels of interaction and analysis from the personal to societal and structural affect life. Specifically in terms of discrimination we can break down the reasons behind issues of inequality in society- where do they come from? How were they built? People in communities are all at different levels within their PCS model- people are influenced and affected by the lives they lead- when they were raised by their parents, how they raise their own family. You need to take this into account- where are people found in these PCS rings? You also need to remember that the PCS rings ARE concentric and they DO affect each other. When trying to address issues such as discrimination, you need to figure out which circle might be the driving force, and where you can intervene in the other circles as well.

Adapt: I think we're starting to see how many of these theories can be adapted to other fields.

I think the biggest takeaway is knowing that people are at different developmental stages. Someone's personal prejudices are often highly influenced by the culture and structure they were raised in (often not a choice). It's easy to attack someone for their personal beliefs, especially when you don't know where they're coming from. I think we can adapt this model to any situation dealing with social justice issues. You need to unravel these circles, knowing they affect each other.

Post Colonialism

Define: “former colonial powers continue their dominance of former colonies through hegemony, that is economic and cultural power” (Askeland & Payne, 2008) Apply: It is important for social workers in particular when they are traveling abroad to understand the colonial powers that were present in that country and to analyze how it continue to affects that country today. For example, it would be important for a social worker working in India to understand how British colonialism impacted India, economically, socially, religiously etc. Adapt: It would be interesting for Linguists to do research on how local dialects have changed over time from being colonized, after colonizers have left and so on. In particular, it is important to note that even post-colonially (British and U.S. colonies) English continues to be a standard second language globally. Askeland, G., & Payne, M. (2008). Globalization and International Social Work: Postmodern Change and Challenge. Farnham: England.

Postmodernism

Define: “rejects the dominance of rational, technical knowledge, in understanding the world, which underlies industrial societies. Therefore, it questions the influence of economies as a technical form of explanation. Instead it emphasizes how the local, societal and historical context influences or creates our understanding of the world” (Askeland & Payne, 2008) Apply: Postmodernism is increasingly being incorporated to social work education. Postmodernism calls into question whether social work methods and interventions are applicable to a wide variety of contexts. Likewise the flow of information must allow for knowledge from other contexts around the world to inform social work practice in the United States. Adapt: Postmodernism in fast food. McDonalds practices post-modernism in the sense that in addition to its standard hamburger menu it customizes items according to the local cusine and context, which is why you can find McArabia in Egypt. http://www.mcdonaldsegypt.com/loader.html Askeland, G., & Payne, M. (2008). Globalization and International Social Work: Postmodern Change and Challenge. Farnham: England.

Globalization

Define: Globalization, “refers to the acceleration of capitalism’s global reach by the most powerful systems in the West, exploiting the most vulnerable people and environments in the world for economic gain, and invading other cultures with a western worldview which reproduces discrimination on a complex global level” (Ledwith,2005) Apply: Social workers and community developers/organizers need to be aware of globalization as it pertains to local issues. With the increase in technology there have been mobilization across global issues in local areas, an example is the mobilization for immigrant rights which is a transnational/global issue which has manifested itself in local xenophobia and local movements of solidarity for immigrant rights. Adapt: The ways in which Globalization has had a negative impact on developing countries is that manufacturers often will relocate outside of the United States and Europe in order to take advantage of other countries with little to no regulations in terms of labor or the environment. Ledwith, M. (2005). Community Development. Portland: Policy Press.

Neo Liberalism

Define: Neo-Liberalism: “refers to a free market non-interventionist state which emphasis the individual, and justifies the deregulation of trade and finance” (Ledwith, 2005) Apply: A trend in applying neo-liberalism to social work is the development of social enterprises. Rather than solve social problems through other interventions, social entrepreneurs use the marketplace to solve social problems. An example is Vision Spring which is company that employs women in developing countries to sell eye glasses to those who lack access to such products like in remote villages, rural areas, etc. Adapt: Neo-Liberalism is actually a theory that has been borrowed to use in social work and community development. In its political context, Neo-liberalism has been designed to give more freedom to corporations, businesses, and entrepreneurs. It has had negative ramifications as well with the introduction of welfare to work programs and has encouraged privatization of what used to be government responsibilities i.e., privatization of social security. Ledwith, M. (2005). Community Development. Portland: Policy Press.

Radical Community Development

Define: Radical Community Development, “is committed to the role of community work in achieving transformative change for social and environmental justice, and develops analysis and practice which move beyond symptoms to the root causes of oppression” (Ledwith, 2005) Apply: If multiple people in the community cannot buy houses because of discriminatory practices with lenders, they can establish their own Credit Union where neighbor can lend to neighbor ending dependence on the discriminatory lender. Adapt: Nurses in a community are aware of rising population of teenage mothers in their community instead of addressing only the symptoms of the problem, the nurses decide to create a sex education community program to teach not only teenagers about safe sex but also their parents and teachers. Ledwith, M. (2005). Community Development. Portland: Policy Press.

Social Infrastructure

Definition: Social infrastructure influences the development of community by means of the availability of quality healthcare, the safety of investment, the quality of the school system, the parks, recreational, and cultural opportunities, the availability, affordability, and quality of housing, and having a quality college/university nearby. (Phillips and Pittman, p. 140-142) Apply: The social infrastructure of a community can provide crucial information about the strengths and weaknesses of a community, the resources which community members are likely to place importance on, as well as the settings in which community members are most likely to congregate. For example, if a community has a variety of interesting recreational and cultural opportunities which members enjoy participating in, but the quality of the school system in the neighborhood is sub-par and offers few extra-curricular opportunities, it is probable that community members (particularly youth) may value the cultural opportunities and events available to them outside of school and may invest less energy and time into school as a result. Adapt: The social infrastructure of an academic community, specifically a higher education community such as the University of Michigan, can also play an important role in assessing the factors that are most pertinent to the academic community, particularly the students who inhabit that community. The quality of the university, the quality of housing, the quality of healthcare, the affordability of living in the area, and the parks, recreational, and cultural opportunities available to members of an academic community affects the degree to which students connect and invest in their academic community and in turn the degree to which a strong sense of community within the academic environment can develop.

Learning Theory

Definition: The learning theory is defined as bringing people together through different means such as cognitive, emotional, and environmental by doing so you can influence others' knowledge, skills, values and ethics. This is important in community development to understand how individuals learn and understand the complexities of different learning styles, and find solutions to practical problems.

Apply: The learning theory can be applied in the educational system to understand how students can best learn and apply different styles of teaching to insure that each student receives the quality of education they deserve. Having different styles of learning also depends on the students background, where they come from and what community they are a part of. These factors have to be considered by the instructor in order to decide what teaching techniques are needed.

Adopt: The learning theory can be adoptive in diverse communities, for example we find that in China Town, Korea Town there are afterschool programs for children to learn more about their language of origin or their culture and to continue their traditions since the have a different style of learning and teaching and wish to continue this system to the newer generations to not forget where they each come from.

SWOT Analysis

Definition: SWOT analysis is a method traditionally used in the business realm for identifying the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats impacting commercial ventures. The SWOT analysis provides a systematic approach for analyzing options, prioritizing actions, making decisions, and focusing efforts for the greatest impact. Strengths and weaknesses assess the internal and direct factors impacting a community, while opportunities and threats assess the factors that lie outside of the control of the community and local leaders but that can impact community development efforts. (Phillips and Pittman, p. 149-150) Apply: SWOT analysis can be used by community organizers and developers to assess the situation of a community in order to make informed decisions and prioritize actions with respect to community development. The SWOT analysis allows for the assessment of the internal strengths and weaknesses of a community with respect to physical infrastructure, social infrastructure, economic development infrastructure, and human infrastructure (as defined by Phillips and Pittman). Additionally, the SWOT analysis assesses external opportunities and threats, such as businesses in the area that may provide job opportunities or housing developments which may threaten to raise property taxes in the neighborhood. A SWOT analysis can therefore help community developers to determine the strengths on which to build, the weaknesses to avoid or overcome, and the external positive and negative factors that may enable or impede community development efforts. Adapt: SWOT analysis can be used in international humanitarian work to assess the location of particular countries with respect to their ability to receive humanitarian aid. The strengths and weaknesses would identify the ability or inability of an organization to provide humanitarian assistance to a particular country (i.e. staff who are familiar with the country and can speak the language, donors and other funding opportunities (or lack thereof)). The opportunities and threats portion of the analysis would assess the external possibilities or barriers to providing humanitarian assistance to the country (i.e. geographic location, ports of entry, ease or difficulty of getting shipments through customs, etc).

Cultural Theory

Definition: Cultural Theory was apply to understand the dynamics of culture in different environments. This is a stage that everyone will have to face since culture is part of society, since there are many components to culture. This include the interplay between cultural tradition and cultural difference and diversity. Moreover, culture is seen as the primary adaptive mechanism of humans to adapt themselves in different environments. Culture is also divided into high culture, low culture.

Apply: Being able to apply a cultural theory lens allows to see what the needs common to all people are. It allows to pay attention to the whole and parts of an issue, evaluate the value systems of certain groups of people. It is also helpful to understand key variables of countries, blocs of countries and human beings and the natural environment.

Adapt: Cultural theory can be adoptive for example by many immigrant families that come to live in the US and leave everything behind. In order to adopt to the new environment they bring mechanisms to view the world as a holistic place. For example many communities will start to build community centers and shops that meet their needs, such as Mexican Town in Detroit. We also have the example of many immigrants that send remittances back to their country not only for economic needs but to continue on their culture and feel the belong in a holistic world.

Critical Race Theory

Definition: Critical Race Theory (CRT) is a movement that studies and attempts to transform the relationship between race and power by examining the role of race and racism within the foundations of modern culture. This theory emerged after the civil rights movement in an attempt to create a forum in which it was apply to the ethnic studies to insure that there was a critical view on race relations in the United States.

Apply: Critical Race Theory is now apply in many areas of study in the law discipline to insure that the civil rights movements continues to be uphold and valued. The responsibilities of these legal professional is to promote racial equality through the law. These laws can include the banning affirmative action such as prop. 209 in California, and Prop.2 here in the state of Michigan that no longer secures that a certain percentage of student of color are admitted to higher education.

Adapt: While CRT has been viewed mainly through the legal profession lens, it can also be adoptive in other disciplines. For example educators can use CRT to understand classroom dynamics, academic testing and curriculum bias. It can also be useful in the political field to understand voting patterns, and campaigns.

community Social Capacity

Community Social Capacity

Definition: According to Mattessich and Monsey (1997), community social capacity is “the extend to which members of a community can work together effectively”

Application: community social capacity could be use by community members to take initiative to meet communities need. In the video “Metropolitan Avenue” the residents were able to accomplish their goals through strong community social capacity.

Adaption: community social capacity theory could be applied to create factory workers coalition that could work together to keep the systems in shape so that the factory owners don’t take advantage of the workers. In the video “the honor of all” we saw how the chicken workers used their community social capacity to get their demand, of paid leave and health insurance, heard and taken care of.

Community Building theory

Community Building theory

Definition: According to Phillips and Pittman (2009), community building refers to activities pursued by a community in order to increase the social capacity of its members. In the words of Gardner (1993), community building involves “the practice of building connections among residents, and establishing positive patters of individual and community behavior based on mutual responsibility and ownership.”

Application: The idea of “time banks” is based on the same theory. Time banks connect community members through the common ground of helping each other, while helping themselves. As a results the community members building connections with each other at the same time establishing positive patters of community behavior based on mutual need and responsibility, while at the same time increasing the social capacity.

Adaption: Community building theory could be adopted by school teachers to empower its students and take ownership. For example, teachers could encourage students to connect with others to accomplish a class project by synthesizing each others strengths through planning, strategizing and contributing to produce a quality product that will give them pride to take ownership.

Social Learning Theory (Albert Bandura)

Definition: Social learning theory focuses on the learning that occurs within a social context. It considers that people learn from one another, including such concepts as observational learning, imitation, and modeling. Apply: When working within communities the organizers can learn how to work with community members by viewing how they interact together. Watching how the community members interact with each other can be a good educational tool for organizers. You can learn how the different citizens act and feel about a certain aspect or the community on a whole by observing their actions. Community organizers will then be able to develop concepts and methods to effectively work with everyone involved as a result of observing the people they will work with. Adapt: This theory can be used when working with youth. Children in school develop their thoughts and ideas from observing other students. Most students will act or dress a certain way when they see other students acting or dressing that certain way. Teachers should work with students to teach them to think on their own and encourage independent thinking. The teachers should also present positive role models for the students to take after since they develop their thoughts from observing the actions of others.

Selective Perception Theory

Definition: Selective perception describes how we categorize and interpret information in a way that favorites one category or interpretation over another. In other words selective perception is a form of bias because we interpret information in a way that is congruent with our existing values and beliefs. Psychologists believe this process occurs automatically. Apply: Community organizers should have open and unbiased opinions when working with people. Organizers will work with a wide array of people with different backgrounds and beliefs. Selective perception prevents people from seeing the truth about other people because of the labels we have already applied to them. We see only what we choose to, which can limit our ability to form complex and fulfilling friendships and relationships. In order to develop meaningful and professional relationships we must put our preconceived notions behind us in order to work together with people and citizens to improve the community. Adapt: One profession that deals with selective perception theory is the law field. Lawyers must deal with different clients and represent their clients to the best of their ability. In some cases they will have to represent clients that they may have biases toward or different beliefs. In order to represent these clients they must put their own thoughts and feelings behind them to represent the clients and present a bias free case. The more aware they become of this process and their own particular triggers, the better equipped they will be to handle situations differently.

Gardner Theory of Multiple Intelligence

Definition: The theory of multiple intelligences was proposed by Howard Gardner in 1983 to analyze and better describe the concept of intelligence. It states that individuals can possess compentencies in many areas, including, the linguistic, spatial, interpersonal, and natural. Apply: Community organizers can use this theory to visualize and verbally express ways to improve the community. Organizers can use the spatial means of learning in this theory to use their eyesight to view problems first hand in the community and see how to fix them. They can then use the linguistic aspect of this model to verbalize their ideas and concepts on how to improve the community. Adapt: Traditionally, schools have emphasized the development of logical intelligence and linguistic intelligence (mainly reading and writing). Gardner's theory argues that students will be better served by a broader vision of education, wherein teachers use different methodologies, exercises and activities to reach all students, not just those who excel at linguistic and logical intelligence. The theory suggest that students can learn using different activities and that teachers will be better served applying different techniques. Using different techniques to help students learn engages students through constrained but meaningful choices, and a sharp focus on enabling students to produce high-quality work.

Stakeholder Theory

Define: Stakeholder theory is built upon recognition of interdependence. It suggests that the corporation is constituted by the network of relationships which it is in with employees, customers, suppliers, communities, businesses and other groups who interact with and give meaning and definition to the corporation. Apply: Stakeholder theory seems to promote a more cooperative, caring type of relationship. Community Organizers should seek to make decisions that satisfy stakeholders, leading to situations where all parties involved in a relationship gain. Community organizers work with numerous stakeholders in different instances. All stakeholders should be addressed in some way so that all stakeholders or a majority of them will be happy with an outcome. Adapt: Health Care administrators make decisions that involve numerous stakeholders. Whether it be the patients, doctors, hospital staff or even the families of the patients the administrators should think about all the stakeholders involved. Stakeholder theory should force them to examine the effect of their decisions on others and make the best decision possible for all people involved.

Core Values Model

Theory Name: Core Values Model (Schuler 1996) Definition: A community is like an ecosystem or a human body - each part works together to make the organic whole work. Isolating portions will make the whole fail. The model is based on community participation and citizen action, and the core values presented by Schuler include: Education, Strong democracy, Health and well-being, Economic equity/sustainability, information and communication, and conviviality and culture. Ledwith, M. 2005 "Community Development: A critical Approach" 79-80 Application to community development: When trying to establish a TimeBank in a community, obviously you're going to need to recruit members. However, handing out flyers to inform/educate the members about the project is one step that cannot be the only one. The TimeBank will not succeed if you don't address other community-related issues as well. (are there community members will to keep the project going? are community members in well enough health to participate?) Ledwith says that "projects in the process of change should not be fragmented from the organic whole" (79). What's the long-term goal? While you have to break down the goal into smaller, do-able portions, do not lose sight of the long term goal.

Adaptation to outside field: In the field of public health, when you want to address a particular health outcome, trying to address only one part of the problem (individual behavior, for example) will usually cause to you to fail in the long run, unless you acknowledge and address other factors as well: policies, power, sustainability, current barriers, etc.

Developmental Approach

Define: this model emphasizes the need to “expand human potential or add to the quality of life, rather than to correct a problem or overcome deficiency” (Homan, 2008, p. 62). Consequently, this approach is solution-focused, as it seeks to foster positive conditions for growth on a micro, mezzo, and macro level.

Apply: The tendency for many organizers and workers is to analyze the problem and concerns found within the community. This is evident as many initial surveys focus on the problems or concerns of residents or what they lack. More frequently, a needs assessment is conducted within the community in an effort to collect statistics regarding the identified problems of the residents. However, from a developmental approach, instead of a problem-solving approach, community organizers would survey residents’ thoughts concerning possible solutions, strengths, and capabilities of individuals within the community. Therefore, the aim of the organizer would be to foster growth within the community after recognizing the assets of the community. Thus, if 40% of the population within the community have obtained a degree in business, it may be helpful to provide education and workshops to other members within the community if they are interested in entrepreneurship. This is a proactive and preventative approach when dealing with communities, rather than reacting to problems or lack of resources.

Adapt: Many scholastic programs also use a developmental approach as they seek to cultivate the personal growth of individuals. A large majority of scholastic programs that work with minorities and other oppressed groups tend to be reactive in their approach, but programs that are developmental seek to nurture and identify the capabilities of youth as well as provide them with an opportunity to demonstrate their gifts. For example, a performing arts curriculum may be formed within a scholastic program for children who sing, dance, and act. Therefore, these programs create opportunities that will develop or enhance the strengths found within youth so that they are able to achieve their personal goals