Community Development Theory

Community Development Theory is the most practical framework for social workers seeking lasting change for individuals and the communities and societies in which they live. It focuses on the centrality of oppressed people in the process of overcoming externally imposed social problems (Allison Tan, 2009). This theory is community development work because by the meer fact of the definition it speaks for itself. The theory could adapt to other disciplines like Neighborhood Development.

Empowerment Theory

Empowerment Theory refers to the experience of personal growth and an improvement in self-definition that occurs as a result of the development of capabilities and proficiencies (Staples 1990). Another definition suggests that empowerment is a combination of personal strengths, initiative, and natural helping systems to bring about change (Perkins & Zimmerman, 1995). This theory can be applied to community development by empowering the people within the community to develop their own community. The theory can adapt to other disciplines like Sociology.

Ecological Systems Theory

Ecological Systems Theory is a form of general systems theory in which ther is concren with the relations among "living entities" and "between entities and other aspects of their enviroment." This theory can be applied to community development by or through the enviroment because the developer has to check out the environment and it's surroundings first in order to build sucessfully. The theory can adapt th other disicplines like Ecological psychology an general systems theory.

Positivism

• Definition: "the basis of sociology's claim to a scientific paradigm which measures human behavior, often in a decontextualized way and with little concern for the more intangible intuitive, emotional or feeling aspects of being human". This theory has basis in dichotomous thought as well as bourgeouis philosophy which looks to empirical science to be the true source of knowledge. See xiv of Ledwith's "Community Development: A Critical Approach". People are looked at in a scientific, objective manner.

• Apply: A community development situation exemplifying this theory would be where the organizer(s) is looking at the community not as individuals, but as objects needing to be dealed with as a part of the problem solving. There is no thought to how the community members may be feeling about the issue at hand and how they may be affected by the potential changes. If the issue is at the interpersonal level, the practitioner simply looks at the person, decides what they need to solve their problem and does not discuss with them how they might or might not want that change.

• Adapt: In an effort to do "Positivism", there is not so much positive emotions carried in the work with the community. It is objective; scientific. This can be adapted to be more intuitive to community concerns and desires by looking at scientific research/surveys and considering how change based on that information may effect the people. Further research can be done by the organizer(s) to learn how the community feels about the issues at hand.

Communication Theory

Communication Theory examines any person that behaves in response to information about himself and his environment. when peolpe exchange information , they influence each other (Communication Theory and Social Work Practice by Judith C. Nelson). This theory can be applied to comunnity develpoment by the fact that the develper has to communicate with the peolpe wwithin the community to gain an understanding of what the people need or want to be developed. This theory adapts not only to social work and communicaton but it exists not only as a single entity but as a series of interrelated areas of study.

Naive Consciousness

• Definition: In the words of Ledwith (Community Development, A Critical Approach) found on page xiv, "Freire's concept for partial empowerment which relates to the symptoms of oppression, engaging with single issues rather than the underlying roots of injustice".
• Apply: Naive consciousness can be seen in a community situation where the people are dealing with an issue such as poverty, and in the process overlooking the root of the problem and not resolving the issue where it starts. i.e. A person is homeless, and the social worker works to take care of that aspect of their lives while ignoring the issue of that person not having stable income or competitive job skills needed in order to more permanently be out of that homeless situation.
• Adapt: Also in the situation of working with a homeless person; instead of focusing on just the housing issue, the social worker can collaborate with the consumer, co-workers and other resources in addressing the other issues affecting his/her homelessness. In this way, naive consciousness will no longer only address a single, outstanding problem. Rather, social justice can be more effectively served by looking at the overall issue and its foundation.

Building Powerful Community Organizations

Organizing: Pathway to Change - Organizing as a Strategy, A Theory (Based on Observation): The Imbalance of Power. Defined - An organizing strategy assumes that problems exist in the world because of an imblance of power. (Building Powerful Community Organizations by Michael Jacoby Brown) This theory can by saying that some people have the power to control the lives of others including control over others' work lives, communities, neighborhoods, schools, and their environment. This power includes control what it costs to most people for the necessities of life: health care, transportation, decent housing, education, heat, electricity, and food. This theory can be adapted by the sear fact most people in the world have to fight for all the bear necessities of life. Not including those that have to beg, borrow, and even steal for these necessities that should be provided by either having a well paying job, given due to disabilities, or just provided to those that are taking care of others like parents, chilren's children, and so on.

Dichotomous Thought

• Definition: "refers to a binary, either/or way of seeing the world that defines one thing in relation to its opposite, with a subject/object power implicit in the relationship, for example, working-class/middle-class, male/female, White/Black." See xii of Margaret Ledwith's "Community Development: A Critical Approach".

• Apply: This theory can be applied in community development situations where the community is primarily Black and the organizer is White. They will have opposite ways of viewing the issues they face because of their cultural backgrounds. This can also be seen where the organizer is from a middle/upper-class environment and the community is largely working/lower-class. There will be opposite ideals and desires based on where these individuals are coming from geographically and economically.

• Adapt: Working with a community that is dealing with dichotomous thought, there will need to be found a base of common values and understanding between the community organizer and community. This first step will need to be made in order to effectively work with all involved in the social/economic/political issues at hand.

Power-based Community Organizing (S. Nguyen)

DEFINE: This theory describes a type of community organizing that is based on the cooperative action of big groups of people, who are interested in solving problems through public action on a political level. The power-based model uses strategies such as public meetings, protests, and marches to put pressure on existing government structures to concede to the demands of the people.

APPLY: Power-based community organizing might be used in situations where community members identify problems at the structural level.

ADAPT: I recently watched a documentary called 'The Water Front' which tells the story of how community organizing was used to fight against local officials to make water more affordable for residents in the Highland Park community. After years of experiencing water shut offs, increases in the cost of water, and struggling to get access to water, local residents created a grassroots movement to fight for what they believed to be a basic human right. These residents and community organizers used strategies in protesting, marches, and public hearings to put pressure on government officials to create change within the community. (waterfrontmovie.com)

Smock, Kristina. (2004). Democracy in action: Community organizing and urban change. New York: Columbia University Press.

Sociological Imagination (S. Nguyen)

DEFINE: This is a term that was coined by C. Wright Mills in explaining an individuals recognition of the relationship between large-scale social forces and individual action and biographies. This concept is based on the idea that individuals are able to think about their lives in the context of history and social outcomes. It a tool which enables individuals to see how social factors on different levels of society interact with one another and helps in understanding life outside of personal experience.

APPLY: Social workers and community organizers engage in the sociological imagination quite often, as this is a concept that is associated with cultural competency and social diversity. In understanding different populations and cultures which we are not familiar with, social workers need to be able to look at social issues from many different perspectives and also able to link historical meanings with those on the individual level.

ADAPT: In working with certain populations like war veterans, it would be helpful for a social worker to use the sociological imagination in examining the impact of war, policies of the US government, and other social issues and factors that contributed a client's or population's state of being.

Mills, C. W., (1959). The Sociological Imagination. Oxford Press, London.

Civic Model of Community Organizing (S. Nguyen)

DEFINE: The model/theory of community organizing focuses on connecting community members directly with governments on a local level. This type of organizing relies on existing local service systems to solve problems and solutions tend to be narrow in scope. Social networks in this model tend to be small and relationships are generally based on self-interest and neighborly relations.

APPLY: In community organizing, this model is best used in situations where problems exist within a small community where goals identified are to be accomplished through the use of official, bureaucratic channels and citizen interactions. For example in addressing neighborhood crime, a civic model would first create a forum where neighbors could meet and exchange information about the problem. They would then connect with existing channels of government to create a plan of action.

ADAPT: An example of civic community organizing are neighborhood crime watch groups and neighborhood associations.

Smock, Kristina. (2004). Democracy in action: Community organizing and urban change. New York: Columbia University Press.

Time banking

Definition: Time banks aim to connect members, different organizations, and sectors for needed services, thus weaving relations and creating community (Stephanie Rearick of Dane County TimeBank in Madison, WI). The concept is that everyone's time is worth the same amount, you exchanged services based upon hours spent on the task

Application: In community development work, a Time banks are a mechanism to create an economy where time is the currency. Time banks generally exist within geographic communities, with the purpose of bringing people together and strengthen social relationships.

Adaptation: Time banking is really interesting concept and could be applied in other field. I think it would be a useful technique on a smaller scale (interorganizational) or even as a system that operates on something other than time. In working with the TimeBank this semester, there seems to be a few parts of how it works that could be tweaked to make it work better.

Institutional Racism

Definition: Jones (2009) defines Institutional racism as the structures, policies, practices, and norms resulting in differential access to the goods, services, and opportunities of society and race”.

Application: In community development work, a community organizer needs to assess for any sign of institutional racism, when working with a community, and then work to break that barrier. For example, in Detroit there was no source of fresh vegetables within walking distance for some residents, this is an example of differential access to goods and services that is establish by Institutional racism.

Adaption: This theory could be applied in school setting by the teachers to make sure that students’ academic performance is not affected by institutional racism. If that is the case, teachers need to take necessary measures to reverse it.

Civic entrepreneurs

Definition: Entrepreneurs is a person who creates and grows an enterprise (Markley et al.). According to Phillips and Pittman (2009) a civic entrepreneur is the one who create programs and resources that benefit our communities and our lives. They develop children’s museums, provide public health care, and build new playgrounds and parks.

Application: In community development work, A civic entrepreneurs could really make a difference in a community that is marginalized by creating programs to meet the marginalized communities need.

Adapt: The theory of civic entrepreneurship could be used by business developer to take opportunities of business potential in marginalized countries or communities. For example, business school in Stanford university reaching out to very distance villagers whose production were getting wasted due to lack of resources, and the business school students trained the villagers on how to store and ultimately to export their production and the business people ultimately makes money as well as the villagers.

Deviance Theory

• Deviance Theory
• Define: Deviance is an act of behaving in a way that is different from the norm and varies from an established rule. Deviance theory is specific to both culture and context and covers rage of behaviors from crime to manners.
• Apply: As social workers dedicated to social justice, we recognize that populations deemed deviant deserve to be looked at compassionately and advocated for, insuring a just social system to navigate. “Deviance” is a relative term and phenomena. Therefore, it is imperative for all social workers to understand the cultural norms of the communities with which we work.
• Adapt: This theory can be adapted to Sociology field study to figure out societal problems. Through this theory, it is able to analyses about who causes problems in society and why they diverge from societal norm as deviance.

Marxism

• Marxism
• Define: Marxism, whose central values are liberty, equality and fraternity, insists that welfare and well-being are social norms based on the values of solidarity and cooperation. This theory proposes a welfare society where the well-being of people is a primary consideration and the mode of production is set up to meet human needs rather than to make profits.
• Apply: Along with social policies, community also should support and take care of each individual in a community. All people in the community should have equal social resource services not only for human basic needs but also their well-being life.
• Adapt: This theory can be adapted to Politics field. This theory would be helpful to promote participation in the government for social changes in order to encourage social justice and social equality.

Game Theory

• Game Theory
• Define: Game is any situation in which one player will only act to maximize his benefit by predicting the behavior of one or more other players. This theory assumes players are rational. The players can analyze possible outcomes, identify paths to the outcomes and choose the actions that result in the best outcome.
• Apply: This theory is useful to understand conflicts that occur between different communities or within a community. This theory can lead the best rational results which can maximize benefits for all different communities or all community members in a community.
• Adapt: This theory is adaptable to economics or business field. People are able think about how to maximize their profits by using this theory.

Theory One Tom Richmond II

Progressivism Theory http://people.morehead-st.edu/fs/w.willis/fourtheories.html

Progressivism is an educational theory based on child-centered teachings, with less focus on the roles of learning top-down rather than more wholesomely. It is given that only democracy permits true learning, and that cooperation and collaboration of ideas will truly grow the mind. This theory can provide great benefits in looking at the community for input as much as inputting personally. By focusing on advising the community rather than leading outright, better cooperation will be enacted, yielding better results. This theory can be applied to politics in the sense of putting the voice into the voters and constituents. It is here where collaboration and the connections of ideas can flourish, in a true democracy. As learning should be directly related to the interests of the learner, so can the policies and laws be directly related to interests of the populous.

Environmental Justice

Define

This field/movement aims to reduce environmental exploitation (and thus negatively affecting plant and animal life, land degradation, water quality, etc) by large corporations and the government. The crux behind the movement (other than environmental ethics and concerns) is that disadvantaged populations (globally, too) are forced to bear the effects at significantly higher rates. These communities end up with more severe health outcomes from toxicant exposure, lack of clean water, etc.

Environmental justice activists work from and within these affected communities often to raise awareness of the issue, garner support, and work to create policies and action to reduce environmental injustices.

Apply

Environmental justice movements have stemmed from community organization. As a movement, environmental justice did not get attention (and actually did not occur) without affected groups of individuals rallying together to make it know the environmental injustices occurring. It is the vulnerable groups, when given the tools and support and movement from within, who can launch an issue into public domain and fight for their goal.

Individuals interested in community development and community organization who may be looking for jobs might find it ideal to look at the field of environmental justice. Frankly, there are so many environmental injustices out there in our country (and world), and people and communities are severely affected by them.

Adapt

Environmental justice is a part of social justice.

"Cultural diversity thus becomes essential for biological diversity; and histories based on local economic development offer alternatives for the future that reflect values other than consumer lifestyles;a harmonious co-existance between social justice and environmental justice" (Ledwith 149)

Sustainable development now and in the future is going to NEED to employ issues of environmental (in)justice in its planning and execution, or society will continually be blocked from ethical just progress.

Bordieu Theory

Define:

Bordieu's theory emerged from French sociologist, anthropologist, and philosophe. Bordieu's theory offers a way to examine the cultural, social, and symbolic capital. When we look at the symbolic meaning understanding the deeper underlying meaning of the dynamics of power relationships as a part of societies socialization process. It provides an understanding of how there are cycles of privilege and oppression. Bordieu argue that individually each of us is impacted by our social location (s) which influence the judgement of taste. In other words, the places we associate ourselves with have signifigance on what we opt for.

Key terms to consider: Social capital- resources that one can acquire through their network of mutual relationships with others in order to secure benefits. Cultural capital-non financial social assets that are inherited and/or granted through academic credentials and qualifications. Symbolic violence- the source of power one uses against those who are less powerful. Habitus- socially constructed systems of dispositions that orient thoughts, perceptions, expression, and actions (i.e influence of relationships and/or experiences.

Bordieu's (1986) early definition, for example, focused on individuals:

Social capital is an attribute of an individual in a social context. One can acquire social capital through purposeful actions and can transform the capital into conventional economic gains. The ability to do so, however, depends on the nature of the social obligations, connections, and networks available to you. (R. Philips, R. Pittman 2009)

Adapt:

Be aware of the capital that community members and clients hold in order to understand the appropriate approach to promote social justice. Understand people's perspectives and possible barriers to change. Cost and benefits with having or not having social, cultural, and symbolic capital. We are all exposed to capitalism which leads to repercussions on individuals, groups, and larger systems.

Apply:

To apply Bordeu's theory in communities we need to examine the implication capitalism has the positionalities, internalized structures, and the bi-directional relationship (both cause & effect). As well as having the ability to be conscious of our inherent biases that guide our work. As social workers and community organizers we are stressed the importance of knowing exactly who you are so that you can better help those who need help. By undertaking Bordieu's theory it can shed light to what has shaped you into the person you are today.

Queer Theory

Define:

Queer theory is characterized by whatever is at odds with the dominant or norm society identifies itself as. There is nothing the queer theory particularly pertains to. It can be seen as an identity without an spirit. Near the 20th century, the word queer was first used to mean 'homosexual.' Depending on the context the term can be offensive, positive, or it is rarely used.

Adapt:

Queer theory emerged out of queer liberation movement and critical Feminist and LGBT. One of the theorists, Michael Foucault focused on the History of Sexuality which led to his discovery of the key elements the postmodernist era influenced the development of queer theory. Over the years the (LGBTQ) Lesbian Gay Bisexual Transgender Queer population has adopted the term 'queer' and made it their own. Instead of using the term gay or homosexual they often use queer. Today, we are seeing the use of the word queer used more widely as the world has started to become a little more accepting of LGBT community itself.

Apply:

When looking at queer theory it is essential to look at the range of critical theories including feminist theory and critical race theory that scrutinize social and cultural spheres. When working in a community that may have LGBT population present. It is important to understand and recognize the terms which have impacted the community at large. Not all individuals who identify as LGBT are okay with the term queer. It depends on the context that the term is used in and the values the particular community upholds with respect.

CAS (Complex Adaptive Systems)

Define:

Complex Adaptive Systems (also known as Complexity Theory)- this theory is about the systemic process that change posesses. CAS consists of a collection of individual agents with freedom to act in ways that are not totally predictable. The actions are interconnected so that one agent’s actions changes the context for other agents. In other words, once change occurs it affects the systems within the intimate relationship they share. CAS is highly disciplinary, seeks answers structural questions about living, adapting, and the process of changing systems. CAS is highly influenced by revolutionary and evolution that the world has been exposed to.

Apply:

An example of CAS are communities themselves. Taking a deep look at communities we see why they exist, how they adapt, and change when they are influenced by other factors. However, this theory could be adapted in any context where people are working towards social justice. As well as we can see how CAS is embedded in the entirety of political parties. Moreover, CAS can be of assistance in a community setting to help us steer away from generalizing the situation that is taking place. As well as better understand what theories are of value in a given situation at that specific time. It always us to look at the bigger picture that "change is here to stay." If we can recognize the inevitable role that change plays then it will help us understand the necessary steps taken to achieve change within the world.

Adapt:

Complex Adaptive theory emphasizes the importance of understanding that change is constant and inevitable. You can't stop it and you can't start it, you can't prevent it, adaptation is continuous. Through a CAS theory lens, the question is not how to create or plan change, but how to adapt to and navigate change. Control of a CAS tends to be highly dispersed and decentralized. Complex systems are embedded with other systems and co-evolve. CAS theory acknowledges that multiple sources of change are occurring simultaneously. A system’s history is irreversible and the future is often unpredictable. A small input can have an unanticipated large effect. CAS theory can be viewed as a meta-theory which provides a way of organizing and relating a range of other theories. In this way, complexity theory reconciles potentially conflicting models by demonstrating how each theory is of value in certain contexts at certain times and for certain people.

Transformative Learning Theory

Define:

Transformative theory: a learning process of becoming critically aware of one's own tacit assumptions and expectations and those of others and assessing their relevance for making an interpretation. Three phases: critical reflection, reflective discourse, and action. Transformative learning often involves deep, powerful emotions or beliefs, and is evidenced in action.

Adapt:

Transformative theory can be applied when working in communities where there is segregation and members do not unite due to difference in ideologies. It can be applied in helping members acknowledge their biases and then working with the community in order to create unity by finding common beliefs and relevance. Transformative theory helps empower communities in that members are in a constant process of gathering information and making meaning of that information relative to the self. It helps community members learn about their likes and dislikes, in turn, motivated to create change.

Apply:

Transformative theory is frequently used in the education system. It is useful when working with undecided/exploratory students. Advisors use this theory to help students gain clarity in their future plans and provides definition to their decision-making. By gathering information and exploring into their inner feelings students can rule out career and educational paths. Transformative theory helps students gain a “meaning of me.” In applying this theory the advisor and student engage in critical dialogue that leads the student to critically reflect on his/her experiences and that of others. The goal is for the student to act upon his learning experience to shape his/her goals and aspirations.

Collaborative Learning Approach

Define:

Collaborative Learning approach: a situation in which two or more people learn or attempt to learn something together. More specifically, collaborative learning is based on the model that knowledge can be created within a population where members actively interact by sharing experiences and take on asymmetry roles. Learners engage in a common task where each member is accountable to each other.

Apply:

Collaborative learning approach is commonly seen in educational settings. Involving joint intellectual effort by students or students and teachers. Groups of students work together to understand and make sense by sharing information and knowledge. Collaborative learning comes into play in every classroom where discussion is allowed. During class when we are split into groups or in pairs we are practicing collaborative learning.

Adapt:

Collaborative learning can be used in a community that lacks information and awareness. It can be used to help those entering the community as well as other members learn and understand needs through other community members.

Matrix management approach

Define: Matrix management approach is an approach of managing through a series of dual-reporting relationships instead of a more traditional linear approach. Individual community members report to different organizations in order to complete a particular project or task. Matrix approach is adopted from a business perspective however; it is widely used in many product/project management situations. Any time members are grouped into teams it is likely that there is a matrix structure. Theoretically, leaders and members have roughly equal authority within the group.

Adapt: Matrix structures are more likely to exist on a temporary basis. Benefits of Matrix management facilitate rapid response to change and are more responsive because it permits efficient exchanges of information. It creates a community in which members are eager to exchange information and cooperate more closely.

Apply: I am a member of the Latino Social Work Coalition here at the University of Michigan. Our coalition works under a Matrix management approach. This has worked in that it does not allow for the leader to hold all the power. Instead the power is distributed throughout the different sub-groups including financing, detainment, and education. It helps projects move forward faster since groups are in charge of certain task and report to the entire group on their projects. It decreases the amount of time that the group must meet to discuss projects and updates. Instead of a traditional approach where everyone just reports to the leader members are to report to the entire group.

Monocultural Change

Define:

Monocultural Change

Communities are in a constant state of change. However, community change looks different in comparison from a multicultural, monucultural and pluralist approach. These three are types of practice; they are not theories. Barry Checkoway describes Monocultural change as based on a “concept of a community whose people are similar in their social characteristics and committed to a common purpose.” A monucultural change the community gains strength in unity, members agree on the same issue and they have similar history, and traditions. In monucultural change approach, the power is held by members of the dominant group and may exclude minorities from the circles of power. Nonetheless, there will be a few from the minority group that will gain acceptance into the power holding dominant groups. Yet, it is important to know that those minorities in the dominant groups will be a few in numbers and will express the same ideologies from that of the dominant groups.

Apply:

It is very easy to see the dynamic of a monocultural change in meetings. For example, a meeting of professors will be most likely to start at the time in which everyone has agreed to, members of the meeting will have similar goals and beliefs, a monucultural language and rules will be used. If there are minorities within this meeting minorities will adhere to the same language, rules, and ideas. Another example will be in classrooms. Students are all expected to follow the same rules that have been placed by the dominant group, use the same language and learn the same values and curricula content. Change will be accepted by the majority and participation will be equal amongst all members.

Adapt:

Although, monocultural change may appear to be unfair and exclusive it has advantages. Monocultural change is beneficial to those that wish to take action for a common purpose. For example, people who have experienced the same oppressions and barriers can unite for the same purpose and create change. However, there is risk to this approach including creating a system where there is a belief that only one way is the best way and having no tolerance or acceptance to individuals who are not members of the dominant groups.

Business Retention and Expansion

DEFINE: Business Retention and Expansion (BRE) works within a community to create relationships with existing businesses. This effort is done in hopes that they will remain in the area and expand to offer more services and job opportunities. BRE efforts work to "increase the likelihood that [businesses] will remain and expand there instead of relocating or expanding elsewhere" (Phillips and Pittman, 2009, p.212). BRE programs must be tailored to each community so that they can properly address the specific economic and societal needs of the community members. APPLY: Community developers conduct interviews and surveys with businesses, begin initiatives to improve communication and relationships among businesses and the government, and hold forums or meetings for businesses to attend and discuss issues. All of these tasks are vital to BRE efforts and community organizers can use them to strengthen the business world of the community there are working with. BREs are a cost-effective way to boost the local economy and create more jobs---both important tasks in any community development initiative. ADAPT: BRE must be an effort by multiple stakeholders, not just community organizers. Therefore, this concept would be beneficial for local governments to take advantage of. If politicians are looking to boost their town's/city's economy and employment rates, they cannot just focus on seeking out new businesses. Government officials must be concerned with how existing businesses are functioning and where there is room/need for expansion. (Source: Phillips, R. and Pittman, R. (eds.) (2009). An Introduction to Community Development. New York: Routledge.)

False consciousness

Define: This situation occurs when the world remains unquestioned by individuals. This causes dominant groups to remain privileged and unchallenged, while subordinate groups are led to (or forced to, 'unintentionally') accept their situation. As described by Ledwith, it is the "way in which subordinate groups are persuaded to accept inequalities by being passive and pessimistic" (97). Often this stems from years of a subordinate/dominant relationship. Perhaps the subordinate group has tried to stand up for themselves in the past and been repeatedly squashed.

Apply: You cannot do any community development work unless you have the movement of the community. If community members are unable/unwilling to see a 'problem'- is it a problem? If they are unwilling/unable to accept that there is an inequality, then you haven't really gotten a basis for a community organization movement. And individuals are at different levels of conscientisation. You need to take this into account- not everyone is going to be on board right away. There needs to be empowerment among the subordinate group so they don't feel their efforts are for naught. And sometimes the group in power has honestly no idea what they're doing is causing inequality and if you don't approach the issue correctly (i.e. if you ambus the group in power) you could cause negative backfire.

Adapt: Social justice education can be fantastic for young adults- for example college students. Some universities offer programs- however in the grand scheme of things only a small subset of students is fortunate to go through such education and training. That aside, in social justice education you have to be very careful about where people are on the scale of consciousness of who they are and their privileges, etc. In fact the education and training programs are geared around that self-discovery. And once people are able to identify where they are, they may be more fully able to understand the inequalities imposed on other groups. In addition, they may be able to identify that a problem/inequality isn't a lost cause. If you can rally enough support you CAN make a stand and challenge a dominant group.

Problematizing

Define: Problematizing is a Freirean concept that approaches problem solving through the form of dialogue and a teacher-learner philosophy (Ledwith, 2005). In the words of Ledwith (2005), “It is a mutual process founded on reciprocity and humility that gets beyond the power imbalance of the traditional teacher-student relationship” (pg. 99)

Apply: In this process, everyone is a teacher and a learner. This theory/concept is a key element in creating community participation and a sense of equality. Prolematizing is an approach that is used in the TimeBank initiative. Core TimBanking values are founded on the principles of reciprocity and community participation. This initiative recognizes that all individual have valuable strengths and skills that need to be shared and received with one another. It allows for children to teach their elders, and for people of power to learn from others with minimal education. Problematizing allows for individuals to be seen as human and valuable.

Adapt: This theory/concept could be adapted in large business office buildings. Large office buildings are often used to house many different separate organizations. Instead of remaining completely isolated from one another, these businesses could use the theory/concept of problematizing to achieve a sense of community and share services. Many organizations within large office building remain separate from one another because of the possibility of disagreement in philosophy. By adapting the concept of problematizing, a general sense of respect is possible. Through this respect, different businesses can learn from one another and also teach one another, sharing services, knowledge, and creating community.

Source: Ledwith, M. (2005). Community Development (pp. 56-111). Portland: Policy Press.

Paulo Freire's Critical Pedagogy

Define: “Critical Pedagogy involves questioning, naming, reflecting, analyzing and collectively acting in the world” (Ledwith, 2005, pg. 95). It is also defined as a, “democratic process of education that takes place in community groups and forms the basis of transformation.” [Ledwith, 2005, pg. 95] Paulo Freire’s theory is based on the belief that liberation is possible.

Apply: This theory has helped to shape the philosophy behind community development work that we practice today. As a community developer/organizer, you are a critical educator. It is essential to encourage others to engage in critical thought through asking challenging questions and pushing people to their learning curves. Through this process, the community worker is encouraging the individual to ask his/her own questions and enter into that critical sense of thought that will hopefully give hope and lead them into a sense of liberation.

Adapt: Freire’s theory can be and should be adapted in all areas of life. If this theory was adapted in a business structure, employees would be empowered and learn from one another, as opposed to following a specific leader. These employees would be given a voice if this theory were to be adapted in this setting. For example, a business owner of an accounting firm could encourage his/her employees to critically think about his/her work and ask themselves questions that would encourage critical thought. This sense of encouragement allows for critical thought to take place, and through this process an employee could realize that the business was engaging in unethical practices. The employee could bring up this realization to the employer, and through dialogue and mutual respect, issues would be addressed and change can be effectively achieved within the business.

Source: Ledwith, M. (2005). Community Development (pp. 56-111). Portland: Policy Press.

Conscientisation

Define: As defined by Ledwith (2005), “Conscientisation is the process whereby people become aware of the political, socioeconomic and cultural contradictions that interact in a hegemonic way to diminish their lives” (pg. 97). Conscientisation is the process of becoming a critical thinker and unpacking dominant thought and oppressive thought which results from the cycle of socialization (Ledwith, 2005).

Apply: Conscientisation happens when a critical awareness is formed. The application of this sense of awareness leads to collective action. This concept can individually fostered through community groups, specifically dialogue and direct action experience. When individuals have experiences/dialogue conversations that engage them in critical thought, conscientisation is taking place. This theory can also be implemented through personal discipline in engaging in material/experiences that will encourage critical thought and the dismantling of previously held dominant and oppressive worldviews.

Adapt: This theory/concept could be adapted within a high-school class curriculum. A high school teacher can engage his/her students in this process by participating in social justice education training sessions, and then facilitate dialogues within the classroom. These dialogues can be focused on oppression and social justice issues that have a large effect on the community/students. These dialogues will encourage students to engage in the process of conscientisation by thinking critically about their lives and the ways in which they have been socialized.

Source: Ledwith, M. (2005). Community Development (pp. 56-111). Portland: Policy Press.

PCS Model

Define: The PCS model (Thompson 2001) has three concentric rings (inside to outside: P-C-S). The "P" stands for personal prejudice or the personal, psychological level; the "C" stands for the cultural level- consensus, commonality, conformity; the "S" level stands for the structural level. (Ledwith 128)

Apply: This model is useful for community development because it allows us to see how different levels of interaction and analysis from the personal to societal and structural affect life. Specifically in terms of discrimination we can break down the reasons behind issues of inequality in society- where do they come from? How were they built? People in communities are all at different levels within their PCS model- people are influenced and affected by the lives they lead- when they were raised by their parents, how they raise their own family. You need to take this into account- where are people found in these PCS rings? You also need to remember that the PCS rings ARE concentric and they DO affect each other. When trying to address issues such as discrimination, you need to figure out which circle might be the driving force, and where you can intervene in the other circles as well.

Adapt: I think we're starting to see how many of these theories can be adapted to other fields.

I think the biggest takeaway is knowing that people are at different developmental stages. Someone's personal prejudices are often highly influenced by the culture and structure they were raised in (often not a choice). It's easy to attack someone for their personal beliefs, especially when you don't know where they're coming from. I think we can adapt this model to any situation dealing with social justice issues. You need to unravel these circles, knowing they affect each other.